5 July 2020- What is Biology?- Part 1

The scientific study of living things is called biology. Biologists strive to understand the natural world and its living inhabitants—plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, algae, bacteria, archaea, and viruses—by asking why and how the processes of life occur. Why do living organisms interact with each other in particular ways? When did they evolve? How are biological processes carried out within organs, tissues, and cells? To answer these broad questions biologists must answer many specific ones: How does an animal’s liver break down fat? How does a green plant convert water and carbon dioxide into sugar? Where do mosquitoes go in the winter?

Some investigations require years of scientific research. Today many mysteries remain unsolved, but continued study leads toward a better understanding of living things and the environment they depend on.

The annual output of biological research today is so massive that no single individual can possibly acquire all of the information. Because of this, areas of specialization have developed, allowing scientists to focus on their own research, yet remain informed on key developments in their fields.

SUBDIVISIONS OF BIOLOGY

The study of biology can be divided in various ways. Certain areas of research incorporate information from other sciences, such as physics, chemistry, or geology. For example, detailed studies of bioluminescence—the light produced by organisms such as fireflies—require a solid understanding of biochemistry.

Some biologists focus their research on one or several groups of organisms. Such specializations can be broad, such as zoology (the study of animals) and botany (the study of plants); or they can be specific, as in the following fields:

• Arachnology: spiders, mites, scorpions
• Bryology: mosses
• Entomology: insects
• Herpetology: reptiles and amphibians
• Ichthyology: fishes
• Mammalogy: mammals

• Microbiology: microscopic organisms
• Mycology: fungi
• Ornithology: birds
• Parasitology: parasites
• Phycology: algae
• Virology: viruses

Some biologists study specific features, such as structure, or explore broad biological concepts. Such studies often look for general principles that apply to different types of organisms. Some examples are:

• Anatomy: the structure of living things
• Cytology: cells
• Ethology: animal behavior
• Genetics: heredity
• Pathology: disease and its effect on the body
• Physiology: biological functions

Biologists may be identified by the group of organisms they study, or by their area of research. For example, a scientist who studies nonhuman primates (such as apes and monkeys) is called a primatologist; a scientist who studies genetics is called a geneticist.

The following sections discuss a small fraction of the many specialized areas of biological research.

TAXONOMY

Naming organisms and establishing their relationships to one another comprise the field of taxonomy (also called systematics). Modern taxonomy is based on a system established in the 1750s by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classifies organisms based on shared attributes and the closeness of their evolutionary relationships. The most basic category is the species (spelled identically for both singular and plural forms). Individual members of a species share common characteristics and a closer genetic relationship with each other than they share with members of other species. The next highest taxon (level of organization) is the genus (plural, genera), which includes groups of related species.

All species have a two-part scientific name. The first part is the genus, or generic, name. For example, wolves and coyotes belong to the same genus—Canis. The second part of the name is the specific name: wolves are members of the species Canis lupus, and coyotes belong to the species Canis latrans. The whole scientific name is always italicized; the generic name is capitalized, while the specific name is not.

The relatedness between groups within a taxon becomes increasingly distant at higher levels: genera with similar traits are grouped into the same “family”; related families are classified in the same “order”; related orders are placed into the same “class”; related classes are placed in the same “phylum”; related phyla (plural of phylum) are placed into a “kingdom”; and related kingdoms are placed into a “domain,” the highest level of classification. The higher taxonomic levels indicate phylogenetic relationships—the degree to which species have diverged from each other during the course of evolution.

The classification of living things is frequently challenged and revised. Taxonomic studies may be based on morphological (structural) traits, such as skull shape and jaw length, or on molecular data, such as DNA, RNA, or protein sequences.

EMBRYOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY

Developmental biologists examine the processes that govern the growth and development of organisms. Included within the field are studies of embryological development of plants or animals and the natural phenomenon of regeneration in which removed cells, tissues, or entire structures of an organism grow back. Research in development has direct applications for agriculture and for human and veterinary medicine. An example of this is cloning, in which cells from an adult plant or animal are used to grow a genetically identical individual. Plant cloning is widely used in agriculture and horticulture. Several types of animals, such as sheep, cows, and cats, have been cloned, though the practice is not widespread. Stem cell research is another example of developmental biology. The capability of stem cells (cells in very early stages of development) to grow many different kinds of living tissue in laboratory cultures has broad potential in medicine. Despite their potential in medicine, however, cloning and stem cell research remain controversial.

ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY

Anatomists study the structure of organisms. Some morphological research compares homologous (similar in origin) or analogous (similar in function) structures among different species to establish phylogenetic relationships. Other studies may investigate the function or mode of operation of an anatomical feature. Histology (study of tissues) and cytology (study of cells) are specialized areas of morphology.

PHYSIOLOGY

A physiologist studies the functions of organs and tissues. A cell physiologist investigates processes at the subcellular level. Animal or plant physiologists may study entire systems, such as those of circulation or respiration. Many physiological studies are intimately associated with morphology.

GENETICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Molecular biology and genetics are two of the most dynamic fields of biology today. New laboratory techniques developed during the 20th century allowed scientists to examine the structure and function of biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins, and to determine their relationship to cellular structures, such as the nucleus and cell membrane. Geneticists also have benefited from molecular studies on genes and chromosomes. However, the use of genetic engineering in medicine and agriculture has raised many new moral and philosophical issues.

ECOLOGY

Ecologists study the relationships and interactions between organisms and their environment by examining the structure and function of ecosystems. Many ecological studies require input from other scientific disciplines, such as geology, animal behavior, and botany. Policy makers and scientists interested in conservation issues need a solid understanding of ecology to understand how changes such as pollution and habitat destruction affect natural communities at both the local and the global level.

ETHOLOGY AND SOCIOBIOLOGY

Ethologists, or animal behaviorists, attempt to understand why animals behave the way they do. Some studies involve direct observations of animals in their native habitats, while others may involve experiments using laboratory animals. Ethology is tied closely to the fields of psychology and sociology. Sociobiology is concerned with the social interactions within a given species and focuses on such issues as whether certain traits, such as intelligence, are inherited or are culturally induced.

EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY

The evolution of species by natural selection is considered by the great majority of biologists to be a fundamental tenet of modern biology. Evolutionary biology seeks to answer questions about the origin and the genetic relationships of all living things. Some evolutionary biologists examine genetic relationships by comparing DNA sequences, while others may compare structural features or physiology. Many evolutionary biologists use knowledge gleaned from paleontology (the study of fossils). 

That's it for today. Tomorrow, we will carry on with this topic. Until next time, stay curious, and stay sciencey!